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Food systems, from the local to the global, face a complex set of challenges in the twenty-first century. As recognized in the latest round of the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change talks, it is clear that global targets for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions cannot be met without major alterations to agriculture and supply chains. At the same time, these systems must adapt to changing and uncertain climatic conditions. Across national and international agendas, agriculture plays a further central role in achieving food security, driving economic growth, alleviating poverty, and sustaining ecological functions and services. In reality, food and agriculture intersect with every one of the UN sustainable development goals (SDGs), underlining growing global concern for, sometimes highly contested debate over, sustainability in food systems. It is in food systems, perhaps more than anywhere else, that we have the clearest illustrations of the contemporary realities of climate change. If evidence were needed that the challenges of a changing climate are not just those of the future, but of today, then, recent food price shocks, crop failures, and famine crises should suffice (FSIN, 2017). These events are not, of course, determined by weather alone, but are the manifestation of complex and cross-scale social, political, economic, and ecological processes, and should serve as a warning against simple and deterministic interpretations of contemporary food systems. Grappling with these complex issues is essential, if we are to understand how climate change contributes toward risks to the food system, thereby enabling targeted coordination of policies within and across governments. In this short paper, we briefly discuss the burgeoning approach of climate-smart agriculture, which seeks to integrate complex issues and set out a direction for change in contemporary systems. Only broad systemic perspectives, as advocated and advanced in this journal section, positions us (as a broad and diverse academic community) to engage with the grand challenges of providing healthy diets for a growing population, avoiding unsustainable land use change, and adapting to and mitigating climate change. The primary aim of this piece is, therefore, to set out our call for journal contributions from interdisciplinary, cross-scalar, and systemic approaches to the goal of designing climate-smart food systems. We argue here that these designs include and necessarily transcend climate-smart agriculture.

The agricultural sector is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and a growing global population means that agricultural production will remain high if food demands are to be met. Mitigation methods to reduce emissions from this sector are thus required, along with identification and quantification of emission sources, so that the agricultural community can act and measure its progress. International legislation requires the submission of annual reports quantifying GHG emissions from agriculture. The impor- tance of attributing the correct sources of emissions to the agricultural sector is clear; however the current approach taken by the IPCC, and reported to the UNFCCC, omits emissions from soils during agricultural land-use change from its agricultural inventory. This paper questions the IPCC approach, and the attribution of agricultural land-use change emissions to a separate category: 'Land-use, Land-use change and Forestry'. Here a new approach adopted by the Scottish Government is examined, and compared to IPCC guidelines and national communications submitted to the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) and the UNFCCC. The new Scottish Government approach attributes emissions from both land-use conversion and agricultural land under continuous use to the agricultural sector, in addition to those emissions from livestock and energy use on farms. The extent of emissions attributed to the agricultural sector using the Scottish Government approach is much greater than that using the other approaches-largely resulting from the inclusion of cropland conversion in the Scottish Government calculations. Attribution of these emissions to the agricultural sector gives calculated emissions of 10.63 Mt CO2eq in 2009, compared to 7.06 Mt CO2eq using the IPCC guidelines. This has implications for the agricultural community and may influence how and if they choose to act to reduce emissions. A large reduction in emissions from cropland conversion since 1990 means that total agricultural emissions in Scotland have fallen 26.64% when calculated by the Scottish Government, compared to a drop of only 19.13% reported to the UNFCCC. 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introducing legumes to crop rotations could contribute toward healthy and sustainable diet transitions, but the current evidence base is fragmented across studies that evaluate specific aspects of sustainability and nutrition in isolation. Few previous studies have accounted for interactions among crops, or the aggregate nutritional output of rotations, to benchmark the efficiency of modified cropping sequences. We applied life cycle assessment to compare the environmental efficiency of ten rotations across three European climatic zones in terms of delivery of human and livestock nutrition. The introduction of grain legumes into conventional cereal and oilseed rotations delivered human nutrition at lower environmental cost for most of the 16 impact categories studied. In Scotland, the introduction of a legume crop into the typical rotation reduced external nitrogen requirements by almost half to achieve the same human nutrition potential. In terms of livestock nutrition, legume-modified rotations also delivered more digestible protein at lower environmental cost compared with conventional rotations. However, legume-modified rotations delivered less metabolisable energy for livestock per hectare-year in two out of the three zones, and at intermediate environmental cost for one zone. Our results show that choice of functional unit has an important influence on the apparent efficiency of different crop rotations, and highlight a need for more research to develop functional units representing multiple nutritional attributes of crops for livestock feed. Nonetheless, results point to an important role for increased legume cultivation in Europe to contribute to the farm and diet sustainability goals of the European Union's Farm to Fork strategy.

Scotland is committed to meeting a net-zero target for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2045(Climate Change (Emissions Reduction Targets) (Scotland) Act 20191). Agriculture and the land use sector can help in two ways: by changing practices to reduce GHG emissions and by storing carbon in the soil and plants. In 2018 agriculture and related land use was responsible for 23% of total Scottish emissions. Emissions from agriculture have fallen by 30% since 1990, compared with a reduction of 45% across total emissions (Scottish Government 2020a).The Climate Change Plan2(CCP) is a key policy tool which has been recently revised to help Scotland meet the new net-zero target. Policy development is informed by the Scottish 'TIMESmodel'3. This model pulls together emission, mitigation and mitigation cost data from all sectors to help understand the strategic choices required to decarbonise an economy. It identifies the effectiveness of carbon reduction measures to enable a consistent comparison of the costs of action across all sectors. To ensure the model uses the most recent data for agriculture, our research updated estimates of the mitigation potential and the cost-effectiveness of a selection of agricultural mitigation options. It took into account the significant recent improvements in UK agricultural GHG inventory reporting (Smart Inventory). We assessed 14 farm technologies and practices which can reduce GHG emissions in Scotland by 2050. Some of these measures can be applied to multiple types of livestock, raising the number of mitigation options to 21. The aim was to estimate the different measures' average mitigation potential, capital and recurring costs per unit (e.g. hectare or animal), and total maximum applicability on-farm. This research considers average estimates. On an individual farm basis, both the mitigation and the net costs can be very different.

Soil carbon has been identified as a priority issue by the Scottish Government in climate change policy across several areas. There is particular interest in the potential of soils to provide carbon sequestration as a contribution to the annual emissions reductions targets, with links to agriculture, renewable energy and other primary land uses.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture, land use and land use change (ALULUCF) are a significant percentage of UK emissions (9.0% in 2013, see Salisbury et al. (2015)). The UK Climate Change Act (2008) sets a target of achieving at least a 80% reduction in GHG emissions by 2050 relative to the 1990 baseline, and the Government has set carbon budgets for four five-year periods from 2008 to 2027, at levels recommended by the Committee on Climate Change (CCC). The CCC recommendations draw on the best available evidence, including the marginal abatement cost curves (MACCs) that have been developed for the ALULUCF sector. The CCC needs to recommend the level of the 5th carbon budget covering the period 2028-32 by the end of 2015. In doing so, it is reviewing latest evidence on abatement potential and costs across sectors. The overall aim of this study was to develop an updated MACC for the UK ALULUCF sector. Specific objectives were to: • Review the CCC's fourth carbon budget (2023-2027) ALULUCF abatement potential and costs in light of the latest evidence. • Extend the analysis to cover the fifth carbon budget period. • Provide a qualitative assessment of additional mitigation measures that could be available by 2050.